📝 English & Writing
English Grammar Complete Cheatsheet
Parts of speech, tenses, essay writing and literary devices — complete English revision.
01
Parts of Speech
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Noun
Names a person/place/thing/idea. Types: proper, common, abstract, collective.
Pronoun
Replaces noun. he/she/it/they/who/whom/which
Verb
Action or state. Types: action, linking, auxiliary (be/do/have/will).
Adjective
Describes noun. Position: before noun or after linking verb.
Adverb
Modifies verb/adjective/adverb. Often ends in -ly. When/where/how/how much.
Preposition
Shows relationship: in/on/at/by/with/for/to/from/under/above.
Conjunction
Joins words/clauses. FANBOYS: For/And/Nor/But/Or/Yet/So. Also: because/although.
Interjection
Expresses emotion: Oh! Wow! Alas! Well...
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SVOCA: Sentence = Subject + Verb + Object/Complement/Adjunct
02
Sentence Types
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Simple
One independent clause. 'The dog barked.'
Compound
Two+ independent clauses joined by FANBOYS. 'I ran but she walked.'
Complex
Independent + dependent clause. 'Although it rained, we played.'
Compound-complex
2+ independent + 1+ dependent. 'I left when she arrived, but John stayed.'
Declarative
Statement: 'It is raining.'
Interrogative
Question: 'Is it raining?'
Imperative
Command: 'Close the door.'
Exclamatory
Strong feeling: 'What a surprise!'
03
Punctuation
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Comma Rules
FANBOYS
Use comma before coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences.
After intro
Use comma after introductory clause: 'Although tired, she continued.'
List
Separate 3+ items: 'red, white, and blue' (Oxford comma optional).
Non-restrictive
Separate non-essential info: 'My sister, who is a doctor, called.'
Direct address
'Thank you, Sarah.' 'Sarah, can you help?'
ENGLISHPunctuation guide
Period (.) — End of declarative sentence
Comma (,) — Pause, lists, clauses (see rules above)
Semicolon (;) — Joins closely related independent clauses
Colon (:) — Introduces list/explanation/quote
Apostrophe (') — Possession (Ali's) or contraction (it's=it is)
Quotation ('') — Direct speech. 'He said, "Hello."'
Dash (—) — Dramatic pause or parenthetical info
Hyphen (-) — Compound modifiers: 'well-known author'
04
Tenses
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ENGLISHAll 12 tenses
SIMPLE: I walk / I walked / I will walk CONT: I am walking / I was walking / I will be walking PERFECT: I have walked / I had walked / I will have walked PERF CONT: I have been walking / I had been walking / I will have been walking Key uses: Present perfect: 'I have lived here for 3 years.' (still true) Past perfect: 'She had left before he arrived.' (earlier past) Future perfect: 'By 5pm I will have finished.' (complete before time)
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Time words: just/already/yet/since/for → present perfect. ago/yesterday/last → simple past.
05
Clauses & Phrases
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Clause Types
Independent
Complete sentence: 'She studies hard.'
Dependent (sub)
Cannot stand alone: 'because she studies hard'
Relative
Modifies noun: 'The book that I read...' who/which/that/whose
Adverbial
Modifies verb — when/where/why/how: 'when she arrived'
Noun clause
Acts as subject/object: 'What she said was true.'
Restrictive
Defines the noun (no commas): 'Students who work hard succeed.'
Non-restrictive
Adds info (use commas): 'My teacher, who is strict, gave homework.')
Participle phrase
'Running fast, she won the race.' — modifies subject
06
Common Errors
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Common Mistakes
its vs it's
its = possession. it's = it is. 'The dog wagged its tail.' 'It's raining.'
there/their/they're
there=place, their=possession, they're=they are
affect vs effect
affect=verb (to affect), effect=noun (the effect). Except: to effect change.
who vs whom
who=subject (who did it?), whom=object (to whom? by whom?)
less vs fewer
fewer=countable (fewer books), less=uncountable (less water)
Dangling modifier
'Running fast, the finish line appeared.' → WRONG. Subject must be runner.
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Comma splice: 'I love books, they are great.' — WRONG. Fix: ...books; they... OR ...books. They... OR ...books, and they...
07
Essay Writing
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Essay Structure
ENGLISH5-paragraph essay framework
INTRODUCTION: Hook (quote/question/statistic) Background context Thesis statement (your argument) BODY PARAGRAPH (× 3): Topic sentence (main point of paragraph) Evidence/example (quote, data, fact) Analysis/explanation (why it matters) Link back to thesis CONCLUSION: Restate thesis (different words) Summarise main points Broader significance / call to action
PEE
Point → Evidence → Explanation. UK exam standard.
PEAL
Point → Evidence → Analysis → Link
TEEL
Topic → Explain → Evidence → Link
Transitions
However/Furthermore/Moreover/In contrast/Therefore/Consequently
08
Vocabulary Tips
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Etymology
Study root words: bene=good, mal=bad, port=carry, scrib=write
Prefixes
un-, dis-, mis-, pre-, post-, anti-, inter-, trans-, sub-, super-
Suffixes
-tion/-sion (noun), -ous/-ious (adj), -fy/-ize (verb), -ly (adverb)
Collocations
Strongly disagree (not heavily). Make a decision (not do). Highly recommend.
Register
Formal: 'I request...'. Informal: 'Can I...' Know your audience.
Connotation
Slim=positive, skinny=negative. Frugal=positive, cheap=negative.
09
Literary Devices
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Metaphor
Direct comparison: 'Life is a journey.'
Simile
Comparison using like/as: 'As brave as a lion.'
Alliteration
Repeated consonant sounds: 'Peter Piper picked...'
Onomatopoeia
Sound words: buzz, crash, whisper, sizzle
Personification
Giving human qualities: 'The wind howled.'
Irony
Saying opposite of what's meant. Sarcasm is verbal irony.
Hyperbole
Extreme exaggeration: 'I've told you a million times.'
Foreshadowing
Hint at future events in narrative
10
Mini Quizzes
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❓ Quiz 1
Which sentence uses the Oxford comma?
The Oxford comma is the comma before the final 'and' in a list: 'cats, dogs, and fish.' It prevents ambiguity.
❓ Quiz 2
When do you use 'who' vs 'whom'?
Who = subject (doer): 'Who called?' → 'He called.' Whom = object: 'Whom did you call?' → 'I called him.' If you can replace with him/her → use whom.
❓ Quiz 3
What is a compound-complex sentence?
Compound = 2+ independent clauses. Complex = independent + dependent. Compound-complex = both combined: 2+ independent + 1+ dependent.